By Thoro Simbi

LECTURE 1: Population: An Introduction to Population Studies (Demography)

(~5 pages)

Key Terms

  • birth control, crude birth rate, crude death rates, demographic transition, demography, dependency ratio, family planning, life expectancy, neo-Malthusians, pronatalist pressures, total fertility rate, zero population growth (ZPG)

Population Studies

  • Population studies –is ‘the scientific study of demographic processes and dynamics of the human population’

  • In other countries, it is called Population Health, or Medical Demography.

  • It is the discipline enshrined within the subject of Public Health

Demography

  • The study of populations, especially with reference to size and density, fertility, mortality, growth, age distribution, migration, and vital statistics and the integration of all these with social and economic conditions. (Last)

The three major components of demography are:
(1) mortality, (2) fertility, (3) migration.

Mortality deals with death rates in a population.
Fertility involves birth rates in a population.
Migration involves the movement of people internally (within a country) and externally (across a country’s borders).

Demographers are interested in the determinants of these three population components as well as in their effects on various elements of society.

Fertility and Birth Rates

  • Fecundity – physical ability to reproduce

  • Fertility – the actual production of offspring

  • Crude birth rate – number of births per year per thousand people

  • Total fertility rate – number of children born to an average woman during her reproductive life

  • Zero population growth (ZPG) – occurs when births + immigration just equal deaths + emigration

Demographic Impact
These effects affect not only population dynamics:

  1. Also economic patterns (e.g., the purchasing power of a cohort)

  2. Social processes (e.g., the availability of family support in old age)

  3. Social policy (e.g., the effect of population aging on pension or health care policy)

Major Comprehensive Components of Population Studies are:

  • Demographic processes and events: a) Fertility, b) Mortality, c) Migration, d) Marriage/nuptiality, e) Population structure (age and sex structure or composition)

  • Population dynamics

  • Demographic measurements and methods

  • Population Projections

  • Reproductive health, Nutrition & Gender

  • Environmental epidemiology and Geographic Information System

  • Social Epidemiology

  • Population genetics & Ageing Population

  • Population Policies, & Globalization

  • Population Information & surveillance system

Population Theories:
Why concerned with population studies or demography in field of medicine or public health?

  • It deals with human population to provide direction to population change (i.e., increases or decreases in pop. growth) which depends on three major factors: fertility; mortality and migration.

Demographic effects of health on population are mainly associated with fertility, mortality and migration.
High births – resulting in high Total Fertility Rate (TFR, i.e., number of live births a woman may likely to have during a reproductive life span) increase population growth rate leading to population explosion (overcrowding) that may not be balanced with the socio-economic growth of a country and that can affect environment, increase disease outbreak and ultimately increase in mortality.

Reduced fertility has a bearing on reduced population growth and improve health status of population, which may balance with the economic development of a country.

Increase in death rates within the population due to epidemiological emerging and re-emerging diseases of communicable and non-communicable diseases has a direct impact on population change (i.e., to reduce it further in its size) – leading to an ultimate land without human populations.

Malthus warned that – "human populations increase at a geometric rate, crowding their environment and creating a legacy of problems for generations in future leading to population explosion"
The world population in 1650 grew at an increasing rate of 600 million, doubled in 1850 to 1.2 billion, to an increase rate of 4.4 billion in 1980, 6.1 billion in 2000 and 7.5 Billion as from June 2011 (UN 2011).

Some European countries are getting to zero pop. growth (ZPG), i.e., ‘population is no longer growing’.

LECTURE 2: Sources, Measures, & Types of Errors of Population Data

(~5 pages)

Sources of Demographic Data

  • Census of population – population, demographic structure and characteristics

  • Registration of vital statistics – population processes of births and deaths

  • Administrative data – local population changes, geographic mobility and migration

Demography, as understood today, is the scientific study of human population and its dynamics. It is derived from two Greek Words: Demos means population, Graphics means to draw.

Demography focuses its attention on three readily available human phenomena:

  • Changes in population size (growth or decline)

  • The composition of the population

  • The distribution of population in space.

Major Sources of Population Data
The main sources are: census, sample surveys, vital event registration systems, population registration, routine administrative records, international publications.

Census – The total process of collecting, compiling, evaluating, analyzing, and publishing demographic, economic, and social data pertaining to all persons in a country or a well defined part of a country at a specified time (UN, 1998).

Basic Features of Census
a) Individual enumeration – Each individual and its characteristics are enumerated separately.
b) Universality – It includes every person residing within a defined territory.
c) Simultaneity – Each person/house should be enumerated during the same well defined point of time.
d) Defined periodicity – It should take place at regular intervals.
e) Defined territory – The coverage should relate to a precisely defined territory.

Types of census approaches

  • de facto census – count the person where they are found on census day

  • de jure census – count them in accordance to their usual place of residence

Methods of Enumeration
i) The canvasser (direct interview) method – information collected by a census official
ii) The householder method – the head of the household is responsible for entering the information

Vital Event Registration System – The continuous, permanent, compulsory recording, compilation, analysis, presentation and dissemination of statistics pertaining to the occurrence and characteristics of live births, deaths, fetal deaths, marriages, divorces, etc.

Sample Survey – It is the collection of information from a fraction of population.

Population Register – a process of continuous registration for each individual from the time of his birth (or immigration) to his death (or emigration).

International Publications – The Demographic Year Book, published by the UN, provides data on population size, area, density, urban population, population growth, age-sex composition, number of births and birth rate, number of deaths and death rate, etc.

Basic Measures of Population Data

  • Ratio – expresses the relative size of two numbers.
    Example: Sex ratio = Number of malesNumber of females×KNumber of femalesNumber of males​×K

  • Proportion – denominator includes the numerator.
    Example: Proportion of deaths to males = Male deathsTotal deathsTotal deathsMale deaths​

  • Percentage = proportion × 100

  • Rate – occurrence of events over a given interval in time.
    General form: Number of eventsPerson-years lived×KPerson-years livedNumber of events​×K

  • Person-years lived – product of the number of persons multiplied by the number of years.

Types and Sources of Population Data Errors
Coverage error – Omission/duplication of persons/housing units in the census enumeration.
Content error – incorrect reporting or recording of the characteristics of persons/households.

LECTURE 3: Population History & Growth

(~5 pages)

WHY POPULATION GROWTH MATTERS
We are living in an era of unprecedented population growth. Since the middle of the twentieth century, the world’s population has more than tripled in size, reaching almost 8 billion people in 2022. Projections by the United Nations suggest that the size of the global population could grow to almost 11 billion by around 2100.

The unprecedented growth of the global population that has occurred since 1950 is the result of two trends:

  • the gradual increase in average human longevity due to widespread improvements in public health, nutrition, personal hygiene and medicine

  • the persistence of high levels of fertility in many countries.

Population momentum – Because of the momentum of past growth, it is unlikely that the increase of global population over the next 30 or 40 years will be substantially faster or slower than anticipated.

Population Growth refers to the patterns governing how the number of individuals in a given population changes over time. Determined by two basic factors: the birth rate and death rate.

Exponential Growth – Occurs when a population has a continuous birth rate throughout time, and is never hindered by the absence of food or the abundance of disease.
Example: a bacterium divides in two, resulting in two bacteria. If these divide, the result is four, then eight, then 16, then 32. This is an exponential process.

Logistic Growth – In real world situations, populations are restricted by lack of food, predators, and diseases. As conditions become crowded, the population approaches the upper limit of the environment’s carrying capacity (K).

Phases of population growth

  • Phase 1: Log or exponential phase – Unlimited growth, intrinsic rate of increase (r)

  • Phase 2: Decline or transitional phase – Limiting factors slowing growth

  • Phase 3: Plateau or stationary phase – No growth, population reaches Carrying Capacity (K)

Demographic Transition Theory – It is a strong interrelationship change between population structure, fertility, mortality and migration.
Classical description involves series of stages during which a population moves from high fertility & mortality to low fertility & mortality.

Seven Transition Stages

  • Stage 1: Potential growth – high births, high deaths

  • Stage 2: Incipient growth – high births, declining deaths

  • Stage 3: Transitional growth – high births, low deaths (population explosion)

  • Stage 4: Incipient Decline – birth rate begins to move downward

  • Stage 5: Controlled growth – birth rates drop low, couples plan families

  • Stage 6: Equilibrium at ZPG – births = deaths

  • Stage 7: Absolute Decline – birth rate consistently below death rate

Critics of Transition Theory

  • Migration variable is left out

  • Western bias

  • Time differences

  • Birth rates can increase again

Current Birth and Death Rates – Every second: about 4 children are born, while about 2 other people die. Net gain: 2.3 humans added to the world population every second, 72 million added every year.

Pronatalist pressures – Factors that increase people's desires to have children.
Birth reduction pressures – Factors that tend to reduce fertility.

LECTURE 4: Population Age-Sex Structure

(~5 pages)

Age and Sex – the most basic characteristics of a population.
Every population has a different age and sex composition – the number and proportion of males and females in each age group – and this structure can have considerable impact on the population’s social and economic situation, both present and future.

The need for health care preoccupies the political leaders of the industrialized countries whose populations are aging, while the need for classrooms, employment opportunities, and housing preoccupies the leaders of countries that are still growing rapidly.

Age and Sex Structure – For example, this structure:

  • Is the basic determinant of the nation’s labor supply

  • Influences requirements for basic goods and services

  • Influences school attendance

  • Influences economic activity

  • Influences a society’s basic reproductive capacity

The structure or composition of a population is the product of the process of fertility, mortality and migration. The most studied aspects of population structure are age and sex.

"Young" and "Old" Populations
Some populations are relatively young (high-fertility countries of Africa). Other populations are relatively old (many countries in Europe).
In many developing countries, 40 percent or more of the population is under age 15, while 4 percent is 65 or older.
In all but a few developed countries, less than 25 percent of the population is under age 15 and more than 10 percent is 65 or older.

Median Age – The age at which exactly half the population is older, and half is younger.

Sex Structure

  • Sex ratio is the number of males per 1000 females in a population.
    Formula: Sex ratio=Number of malesNumber of females×100Sex ratio=Number of femalesNumber of males​×100

Example: In 1995, there were 96 males per 100 females in Japan.
Sex ratio at birth in most countries is about 105 or 106 males per 100 females.

Age-Dependency Ratio
Formula:

Population under age 15+Population over age 64Population ages 15–64×100Population ages 15–64Population under age 15+Population over age 64​×100

Example: France in 1996 had 53 persons in dependent ages for every 100 persons in working ages.
It is sometimes divided into child dependency (under 15) and old-age dependency (65+).

Population Pyramid – A population pyramid graphically displays a population’s age and sex composition. Horizontal bars present the numbers or proportions of males and females in each age group. The sum of all the age-sex groups equals 100 percent of the population.

Three General Profiles of Age-Sex Composition

  1. Rapid growth – large percentage of people in younger ages (triangular/pyramid shape)

  2. Slow growth – smaller proportion in younger ages

  3. Zero growth or decreasing – roughly equal numbers in all age ranges, tapering at older ages

Types of Population Pyramids

  1. Triangular-shaped (rapid growth)

  2. Beehive-shaped (slow growth, narrow base)

  3. Rectangular-shaped (zero/negative growth)

Shape of pyramids is controlled by births, deaths, & migrations.

Reading Population Pyramids – Width of the base indicates birth rate (wide = high birth rate). Symmetry indicates differences in male/female population (e.g., more females at older ages).

Population Momentum – The tendency of a population to continue to grow after replacement-level fertility has been achieved. It may take two or three generations (50–70 years) before each new birth is offset by a death.

LECTURE 5: Nuptiality (Marriage and Marital Dissolution)

(~5 pages)

Nuptiality – The frequency and characteristics of marriage in a population.
Polygamy – One man marries more than one woman at a time.
Monogamy – Having only one spouse at one time.
Divorce – The legal process in which a judge legally ends a marriage.
Cohabitation – Persons who, while not married, have lived as married persons for a period of not less than five years.
Fertility – The actual birth performance of a population.
Singulate Mean Age at Marriage (SMAM) – The average length of single life expressed in years among those who marry before age 50.

Marriage rate – number of marriages per 1000 total population in a given year.
Formula: No. of marriagesTotal population×1000Total populationNo. of marriages​×1000

Divorce rate – number of divorces per 1000 total population in a given year.
Formula: No. of divorcesTotal population×1000Total populationNo. of divorces​×1000

Crude Marriage Rate = Number of marriages in the yearMid-year population×1000Mid-year populationNumber of marriages in the year​×1000 – unsatisfactory because denominator includes population not eligible to marry.

General Marriage Rate = Number of marriages within one yearNumber of unmarried persons age 15–49 years×1000Number of unmarried persons age 15–49 yearsNumber of marriages within one year​×1000

Family life cycle phases

  • Formation (marriage – birth of 1st child)

  • Extension (birth of 1st child – birth of last child)

  • Complete extension (birth of last child – 1st child leaves home)

  • Contraction (1st child leaves home – last child leaves)

  • Complete contraction (last child leaves – spouse dies)

  • Dissolution (spouse dies – death of survivor)

Divorce v. Separation

  • Divorce – court order that legally ends a valid marriage; partners may remarry.

  • Separation – couple decides to live apart but remains legally married.

Crude divorce rate – number of divorces per 1000 population. This is a poor measure because it includes members not at risk.
Refined divorce rate – number of divorces per 1000 married women over age 15 – best measure.

Why people get divorced – growing apart, feeling unloved, violent spouses, infidelity, no trust, incompatible, abuse, money problems, etc.

Effects of divorce on children – sleep problems, poor concentration, trouble at school, drug or alcohol abuse, eating disorders, angry outbursts, withdrawal from loved ones.

Singulate Mean Age at Marriage (SMAM) – an estimate of the average number of years lived in a single status by those who ever marry before age 50. A high SMAM means a later age at first marriage.

Nuptiality analysis – Marriage marks the onset of regular exposure to pregnancy and is therefore a proxy determinant for fertility. Its demographic, economic, socio-cultural and health implications set the stage for reproductive activities.

Systems of Marriage in PNG – The country now has three main systems:

  1. Ordinance Marriage – performed at Registrar General’s office or place of worship; monogamous; certificates issued.

  2. Customary Marriage – governed by traditional norms; brideprice ceremonies observed.

  3. Religious Marriages – held in churches; wedding ceremonies; witnessed by family and friends.

Age at First Marriage (SMAM) – marks the time of entry into marital life and regular exposure to the risk of childbearing (Islam 2009).

Marital Fertility – estimated in terms of the mean number of children ever born by women of different marital statuses. Expected to be high in societies where nonmarital births are low and girls marry early.

Contemporary Family Choices – Many women are electing to delay having children 5–10 years after marriage. 28% women 30–34 and 19% women 40–44 are childless.

LECTURE 6: Migration

(~5 pages)

Definition of Migration – Any “permanent” change in residence.

Mobility – most generalized term that refers to all types of movements (journeying to work, weekly visits, annual trips).
Circulation – short-term and repetitive acts of mobility (e.g., university students moving at start of academic year and returning home).

Emigration – migration from a location.
Immigration – migration to a location.
Net migration – difference between number of immigrants and number emigrants.

Ravenstein's laws – Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country. Long-distance migrants to other countries head for major centers of economic activity.

Types of Migration

  • International Migration – permanent move from one country to another (voluntary or forced)

  • Internal Migration – permanent move within the same country (interregional or intraregional)

Internal v. International – Internal: migration within same country (rural to urban; urban to suburban). International: cross country boundaries (legal v. illegal; refugees; asylees).

International Migration Patterns – Approximately 9 percent of the world's people are international migrants. Global pattern reflects migration tendencies from developing countries to developed countries.

  • Net Out-Migration: Asia, Latin America, Africa

  • Net In-Migration: North America, Europe, Oceania

U.S. Immigration Patterns – U.S. has more foreign-born residents than any other country: approximately 43 million as of 2010. Three main eras: Colonial settlement, Mass European immigration (late 19th/early 20th), Asian and Latin American integration (late 20th/early 21st).

Refugees – UN definition: a person who cannot return to own country because of well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, political association or social grouping.
Asylum seekers – people who claim to be refugees; undergo legal procedure.
Internally displaced persons (IDPs) – forced from homes for refugee-like reasons but remain within own country.

Voluntary migration – Migrant makes the decision to move; push and pull factors determine whom and where.
Forced migration – Involuntary migration; mover has no role in decision-making (slavery, human trafficking, refugees, military conscription).

Intervening obstacles – Environmental features (mountain, ocean, distance) or political features (countries require proper documentation).

Reasons for Migration – Push and Pull Factors
Three major types: Political, Environmental, Economic.

Political factors – compelling push factors (persecution, unrest). Pull factors (rights, freedoms).
Environmental factors – push: water, flood, drought; pull: mountains, seasides, warm climates.
Economic factors – most people migrate for economic reasons. Push: few jobs; Pull: jobs available.

Controlling Migration – Countries have adopted selective immigration policies. U.S. Quota Act (1921) and National Origins Act (1924) ended unrestricted immigration. Preferences shown toward: Family Reunification (≈3/4), Skilled Workers (≈1/4), Diversity.

Brain drain – disproportionate amount of highly skilled and intelligent citizens migrating away from sending countries.

Unauthorized Immigration – Those who enter a country without proper documents. Roughly 58 percent from Mexico.

Attitudes toward Immigrants – In Europe, biggest fear is that host country’s culture will be lost (different religions, languages, food, habits). Hostility to immigrants has become a central plank of some political parties.

Characteristics of Migrants (Ravenstein) – Most long-distance migrants are male, adult individuals rather than families with children, young adults seeking work.
Gender reversed in 1990s when women constituted about 55 percent of U.S. immigrants.
About 40 percent of immigrants in U.S. are young adults between ages 25 and 39.

Push factors – unfavorable characteristics that impel emigration (unemployment, poverty, discrimination, war, famine, land shortage, overpopulation).
Pull factors – attractive forces drawing migrants (employment opportunities, political/personal freedoms, land, amenities).

Migrant Characteristics – Demographic: young men and women between ages 15–24. Recently proportion of young women increased.
Education: clear association between migration and educational attainment (more education > greater propensity to migrate).
Economic: migrants seem to come from all strata with majority being very poor.

Summary – On a global scale, the largest flows of migrants are from Asia to Europe and from Latin America to the U.S. (Third-world to first-world). The decision to migrate is influenced by a mixture of push and pull factors. Migrants face obstacles primarily political or cultural.

LECTURE 7: Fertility

(~8–10 pages)

Fertility is a primary engine of population growth. Knowledge of fertility levels and trends can help us formulate and evaluate policies related to population change. Furthermore, analysis of fertility trends helps to predict needs for public services, such as health facilities and schools.

Fertility refers to the number of live births women have. It differs from fecundity, which refers to the physiological capability of women to reproduce. Fertility is directly determined by a number of factors that, in turn, are affected by a great many social, cultural, economic, health, and other environmental factors.

Live Birth (WHO) – any product of conception regardless of the period of gestation which after complete expulsion or extraction from the uterus of the mother shows any signs of life whether or not the umbilical cord is cut or the placenta is detached.
Signs of life – e.g., heart beats, pulsations in the cord, respiration and voluntary muscle movements.

Crude Birth Rate (CBR) – indicates the number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year.
Formula: Number of live birthsTotal population×1,000Total populationNumber of live births​×1,000

Growth Rate – The rate at which a population is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base population. The growth rate takes into account all components: births, deaths, and migration. It should never be confused with the birth rate.

A baby boom – any period of time where there is a great increase in the birth rate. A baby boom is normally seen after a great war.

General Fertility Rate (GFR) – the number of live births per 1,000 women ages 15–49 in a given year.
Formula: Number of live birthsNumber of women ages 15–49×1,000Number of women ages 15–49Number of live births​×1,000
This is a more refined measure than CBR because it relates births to the age-sex group at risk of giving birth.

Age-Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) – The maximum fertility occurs between 25–35 years. The whole reproductive life of females (15–49 years) is divided into seven age groups (15–19, 20–24, …, 45–49).
Formula:

\text{ASFR} = \frac{\text{Total number of live births from women in the specific age group in a locality}}{\text{Number of women in the same specific age group in the same year & locality}} \times 1,000

= ...Live births/1,000 female population in specified age group.

Fecundity Rate (Marital Fertility Rate) –
Formula: No. of live births in a certain area and yearNo. of married women (15–49 years) in the same area and year×1,000No. of married women (15–49 years) in the same area and yearNo. of live births in a certain area and year​×1,000

Children Ever Born – The number of “children ever born” at various ages of the mother provides one measure of a population’s fertility. When calculated for women over age 49, it is called the completed fertility rate; it shows how many children a cohort of women who have completed childbearing actually produced.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) – It is a hypothetical measure of fertility. It is computed by summing the current seven age-specific fertility rates of the year of calculation, then multiplied by 5.
TFR = .... children born/woman.
In developed countries the TFR is under 2.0. In developing countries the TFR is over 6.0 per women.

The TFR is a synthetic measure; no individual woman is very likely to pass through three decades conforming to the age-specific fertility rates of any single year. The TFR is one of the most useful indicators of fertility because it gives the best picture of how many children women are currently having.

Example calculation (Israel, 1994) – Sum of age-specific birth rates ×5 = 2.88. That means a woman would average 2.9 children.

Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR) – (mentioned but formula not detailed in notes)

Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) – The average number of daughters that would be born to a woman if she passed through her lifetime conforming to age-specific fertility and mortality rates of a given year. This rate is like the GRR, but it is always lower because it takes into account that some women will die before completing their childbearing years.

Example: Burkina Faso (1993) GRR 3.50, NRR 2.41; United Kingdom GRR 0.86, NRR 0.85.

Child-Woman Ratio –
Formula: Number of children under age 5Number of women ages 15–49×1,000Number of women ages 15–49Number of children under age 5​×1,000
Example: Australia 1995 – 279 children under age 5 per 1,000 women of childbearing age.

Replacement Level – The number of children required to keep the population of a country constant, not taking migration into consideration. This is about 2.1 children per female in MDCs and 2.5 children per female in LDCs.

Replacement-Level Fertility – The level of fertility at which women in the same cohort have exactly enough daughters (on average) to “replace” themselves in the population. An NRR of 1.00 is equal to replacement level. In developed countries today, a TFR of about 2.1 is considered replacement-level. In developing countries with much higher mortality rates, TFRs higher than 2.1 are necessary.

Once replacement-level fertility has been reached, births will gradually reach equilibrium with deaths, and in the absence of immigration and emigration, a population ultimately will stop growing and become stationary. The time this process takes varies greatly depending upon the age structure.

A population that has achieved replacement or below replacement fertility may still continue to grow for some decades because past high fertility leads to a high concentration of people in the youngest ages. Total births continue to exceed total deaths as these youth become parents. Eventually, this large group becomes elderly and deaths increase to equal or outnumber births. Thus it may take two or three generations (50–70 years) before each new birth is offset by a death.

Percentage of Births Outside Marriage –
Formula: Number of births to unmarried womenTotal live births×100Total live birthsNumber of births to unmarried women​×100
Example: Netherlands 1997 – 18.5 percent; Sweden 1999 – 55.3 percent; Greece 1999 – 4.0 percent.

Factors Affecting Fertility – Fertility is affected by cultural, social, economic, and health factors. Most of these factors operate through: (1) proportion of women in sexual unions; (2) percentage of women using contraception; (3) proportion of women not currently fecund (primarily because of breastfeeding); (4) level of induced abortion.

Factors associated with high fertility – Increased infant and child mortality; economic factors (more children help improve family income); family welfare (large families are stronger); large family makes marriage happier, prevents divorce; large family is God’s will; large family gives welfare to community and nation.

Economic factors affecting fertility – Level of economic development (higher dev. = lower BR). Agrarian society – kids considered asset. Developed world – kids a liability (small families = increased standard of living; high cost of raising/educating kids is incentive to have small families).

Social factors – Adult sons care for elderly (sons highly valued). Religion: Catholics oppose birth control; Buddhism – birth control ok; Hinduism – birth control ok but son highly valued; Islam – oppose birth control. Literacy rates: high literacy/education = low birth rate; low literacy/education = high birth rate. Changing attitudes towards women’s societal roles (acceptability of birth control, lower family sizes becoming acceptable). Age structure – if average age is low, birth rate will be high. Infant mortality rate – areas with high rates have larger families; areas with low rates have small families.

Political factors – Pro Natal Policy examples (encourage having kids): France – improved day care, employees given time off to spend with kids. Anti Natal Policy examples (not having kids): China – one child policy.

Factors associated with low fertility motives – To preserve health of mother and children; for better caring of children; for family welfare and higher standard of living; for community development; to avoid problem of overpopulation.

Consequences of rapid population growth – Food production has not sufficiently increased; health/medical services overtaken; education opportunities hampered; employment opportunities difficult to increase; social services impaired; distribution of income wealth affected.

Management of overpopulation problem – Long-term policy: raising socioeconomic standard. Short-term policy: birth control through family planning programs; promoting national production and investments.